Prevent Linux firewalls interfering with Samba commands in a home network that uses broadcast NetBIOS name resolution

Or “How come devices in a home network can browse SMB shares but Linux Samba commands and Windows nbtstat commands do not work properly?”

Introduction

In a previous post I explained how it is possible to browse SMB shares when using broadcast NetBIOS name resolution in a home network consisting of machines running Linux, Windows and other operating systems. Browsing SMB/Samba shares will work as expected, but Samba commands such as ‘smbtree‘, ‘smbclient‘ and ‘nmblookup‘ will not work properly if the Linux machines use a firewall that has not been configured for broadcast NetBIOS name resolution. This post is to explain how to do that.

If broadcast NetBIOS name resolution is being used and none of the Linux machines has a firewall enabled, or if their firewalls have been correctly configured, the output of e.g. the ‘smbtree‘ command on one of those machines would look something like the example below.

anne@akhanaten:~$ smbtree
Enter anne's password: 
HOME
        \\AKHANATEN                     Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu
                \\AKHANATEN\IPC$                IPC Service (Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu)
                \\AKHANATEN\guest               guest account
                \\AKHANATEN\matthew             matthew share
                \\AKHANATEN\marilla             marilla share
                \\AKHANATEN\anne                anne share
        \\TUTANKHAMUN                   Samba 4.5.10
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Samsung_Xpress_C460FW     Samsung Xpress C460FW
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP560_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP560
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP510_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP510
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Virtual_PDF_Printer       Virtual PDF Printer
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\IPC$              IPC Service (Samba 4.2.11)
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Public
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\anne-share
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\print$
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\netlogon          Network Logon Service
        \\BTHUB5                        BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server
                \\BTHUB5\IPC$                   IPC Service (BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server)
        \\THUTMOSEIII                   Windows 10 computer

If Linux firewalls have not been correctly configured, the output would be missing some information about other machines in the network. For example, compare the output above with the output below from the same network, this time with the Linux firewalls configured using typical rules for Samba specified in Web articles, blog posts and forums.

anne@akhanaten:~$ smbtree
Enter anne's password: 
HOME
        \\AKHANATEN                     Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu
                \\AKHANATEN\IPC$                IPC Service (Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu)
                \\AKHANATEN\guest               guest account
                \\AKHANATEN\matthew             matthew share
                \\AKHANATEN\marilla             marilla share
                \\AKHANATEN\anne                anne share
        \\TUTANKHAMUN                   Samba 4.5.10
        \\BTHUB5                        BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server
        \\THUTMOSEIII                   Windows 10 computer

To avoid this problem you need to add a further Linux firewall rule to the set of rules usually used for Samba. Below I first list the usual firewall rules for Samba, then I give the additional rule necessary if using broadcast NetBIOS name resolution. In each case I give the applicable rules for a pure IPTABLES firewall and for UFW (Uncomplicated Firewall). The rules listed here assume the IP address range of the home network is 192.168.1.0/24, so change the range to suit the specific network.

Firewall rules typically specified for machines using Samba

IPTABLES

The rules listed below assume the machine uses interface eth0, so change the interface to suit the specific machine.

# NetBIOS Name Service (name resolution)
iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -p udp --dport 137 -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT

# NetBIOS Datagram Service (BROWSER service)
iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -p udp --dport 138 -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT

# NetBIOS Session Service (data transfer legacy SMB/NetBIOS/TCP)
iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 139 -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT

# Microsoft Directory Service (data transfer SMB/TCP)
iptables -A INPUT -i eth0 -p tcp --dport 445 -s 192.168.1.0/24 -j ACCEPT

UFW

In some Linux distributions the ufw application allows a single command to add Samba support, such as:

user $ sudo ufw allow Samba

or

user $ sudo ufw allow CIFS

These ‘application profiles’ are specified in files in the directory /etc/ufw/applications.d/, so you could add application profiles or modify existing ones if you wish. In one of my installations the file /etc/ufw/applications.d/ufw-fileserver includes the following application profile for Samba, for example:

[CIFS]
title=SMB/CIFS server
description=SMB/CIFS server
ports=137,138/udp|139,445/tcp

If such an application profile does not exist in your installation, typical Samba rules can be added in UFW using the following two commands:

user $ sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.0/24 to any port 137,138 proto udp
user $ sudo ufw allow from 192.168.1.0/24 to any port 139,445 proto tcp

The correct addition of the rules can be checked using the following command:

user $ sudo ufw status verbose
Password:
Status: active
Logging: on (low)
Default: deny (incoming), allow (outgoing), disabled (routed)
New profiles: skip

To                         Action      From
--                         ------      ----
137,138/udp (CIFS)         ALLOW IN    192.168.1.0/24
139,445/tcp (CIFS)         ALLOW IN    192.168.1.0/24

The extra rule required when using broadcast NetBIOS name resolution

The reason why an extra rule is required when using broadcast NetBIOS name resolution is because UFW (which is based on IPTABLES) is ‘stateful’, as is a purely IPTABLES firewall (unless explicitly configured not to be stateful). The firewall does not consider packets it receives in response to its broadcast to be ESTABLISHED or RELATED, and therefore drops those packets. So, despite the IPTABLES and UFW rules listed above including a rule to accept incoming UDP packets on Port 137, any UDP packets received on Port 137 that do not constitute a one-to-one, two-way communication flow are dropped by the firewall. The extra rule below overrules this and makes the firewall accept packets coming from other devices’ Port 137 in response to broadcast NetBIOS Name Service packets. To do this, the extra rule uses a CT (Connection Tracking) helper named ‘netbios-ns‘ (obviously meaning ‘NetBIOS Name Service’). In order to use this rule the kernel must have been configured to use the IPTABLES ‘raw‘ table and to use CT (see the section ‘Kernel configuration’ further on).

IPTABLES

# All NetBIOS clients must have the netbios-ns helper enabled for broadcast name resolution to work
iptables -t raw -A OUTPUT -p udp -m udp --dport 137 -j CT --helper netbios-ns

By the way, in addition to flushing the usual tables, flush the ‘raw‘ table too when you restart the firewall:

iptables -t raw -F OUTPUT

UFW

Add the following lines to the end of the file /etc/ufw/before.rules

# The following is needed to enable Samba commands to
# work properly for broadcast NetBIOS name resolution
#
# raw table rules
*raw
:OUTPUT ACCEPT [0:0]
-F OUTPUT
-A OUTPUT -p udp -m udp --dport 137 -j CT --helper netbios-ns
COMMIT

Note that the output of the command ‘ufw status verbose‘ will not include the above rule. This is not a bug.

Kernel configuration

If you are using a binary-based distribution such as Ubuntu Linux, the kernel will probably have been configured to include the needed modules (CONFIG_IP_NF_RAW=m, CONFIG_IP6_NF_RAW=m and CONFIG_NETFILTER_XT_TARGET_CT=m), and the installation configured to load the modules automatically. However, if you are using a source-based distribution such as Gentoo Linux make sure the kernel configuration includes these three options before you build the kernel, and also add the module names ‘iptable_raw‘ and ‘xt_CT‘ to the module list in the file /etc/conf.d/modules as shown in the example below, so that the modules are loaded at boot:

modules="r8169 nvidia agpgart fuse bnep rfcomm hidp uvcvideo cifs mmc_block rtsx_pci snd-seq-midi vboxdrv vboxnetadp vboxnetflt iptable_raw xt_CT"

You can use the following two commands to check if the two modules are loaded:

user $ sudo lsmod | grep iptable_raw
user $ sudo lsmod | grep xt_CT

How to check the additional rule is active

You can use the command below whether you are using pure IPTABLES or UFW.

user $ sudo iptables -nvL -t raw
Password: 
Chain PREROUTING (policy ACCEPT 2613 packets, 1115K bytes)
 pkts bytes target     prot opt in     out     source               destination         

Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT 2773 packets, 475K bytes)
 pkts bytes target     prot opt in     out     source               destination         
   16  1248 CT         udp  --  *      *       0.0.0.0/0            0.0.0.0/0            udp dpt:137 CT helper netbios-ns

The packet and byte counts will increase whenever you use a Samba command.

Bibliography

1. The netfilter.org "iptables" project
2. Iptables Tutorial
3. Introduction to IPTables
4. Gentoo Wiki : iptables
5. Arch Linux Wiki : Samba : "Browsing" network fails with "Failed to retrieve share list from server"
6. Ubuntu : Manpage : ufw-framework
7. Gentoo Wiki : UFW

xdotool comes to the rescue

In a previous post I explained how I implemented a method for adding my current location and the local time to my e-mail signature wherever I happen to be in the World, irrespective of the time on the laptop’s hardware clock and system clock. In that post I described how I created a keyboard shortcut using the Linux application AutoKey. Unfortunately AutoKey has not been updated for several years and no longer works properly in KDE Plasma 5 on my laptops. Therefore I decided to replace it with a KDE keyboard shortcut, and this is to explain how I did it.

First create a custom shortcut in KDE:

1. ‘System Settings’ > ‘Shortcuts’ > ‘Custom Shortcuts’
2. ‘Edit’ > ‘New’ > ‘Global Shortcut’ > ‘Command/URL’, and name the New Action ‘Insert current time’
3. On the Comment pane for ‘Insert current time’, add the comment ‘Insert current time at specified location’ (without the quotes)
4. On the Trigger pane, configure the shortcut to be Ctrl+Alt+Space
5. On the Action pane, enter the Command/URL as ‘/home/fitzcarraldo/timezone_signature_GeoNames.sh‘ (without the quotes)
6. Click ‘Apply’

Next modify the Bash script timezone_signature_GeoNames.sh so that it contains the following (obviously change the username and path to suit):

#!/bin/bash

place=$(kdialog --title "Current Location" --inputbox "Enter your location:")

placetime=$(perl /home/fitzcarraldo/now1.pl $place)

# xdotool does not output a space in a string, so we have to extract each field from the string
# and print each field individually, separated by a space character.

city=$(echo $placetime | awk -F "|" '{print $1}')
country=$(echo $placetime | awk -F "|" '{print $2}' | sed 's/[)(]//g')
region=$(echo $placetime | awk -F "|" '{print $4}')

datetime=$(/usr/bin/zdump $region | awk -F " " '{print $2" "$3" "$4" "$5" "$6" "$7}')
dayofweek=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $1}')
month=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $2}')
day=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $3}')
time=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $4}')
year=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $5}')
timezone=$(echo $datetime | awk -F " " '{print $6}')

activewindow=$(xdotool getactivewindow)

xdotool type --window $activewindow "Sent from:"
for oneword in $city; do
    xdotool key --window $activewindow space
    sleep 0.1s
    xdotool type --window $activewindow --delay 100 $oneword
done
xdotool key --window $activewindow comma
for oneword in $country; do
    xdotool key --window $activewindow space
    sleep 0.1s
    xdotool type --window $activewindow --delay 100 $oneword
done
xdotool key --window $activewindow Return
xdotool type --window $activewindow "Local time now: "
xdotool type --window $activewindow $dayofweek
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
xdotool type --window $activewindow $month
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
xdotool type --window $activewindow $day
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
xdotool type --window $activewindow $time
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
xdotool type --window $activewindow $year
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
if [ ${timezone:0:1} = "-" ]; then
    timezone="UTC-"${timezone#*-}
elif [ ${timezone:0:1} = "+" ]; then
    timezone="UTC+"${timezone#*+}
fi
xdotool type --window $activewindow $timezone
xdotool type --window $activewindow " "
xdotool key --window $activewindow Return
xdotool key --window $activewindow Return
echo

The Perl script now1.pl is listed in my my earlier post. Notice that the script timezone_signature_GeoNames.sh in my earlier post was much simpler. This was because the AutoKey shortcut took care of sending the text to the currently active window. Without AutoKey, I now had to do this myself in the script timezone_signature_GeoNames.sh, and the command xdotool came to the rescue. The developer explains what xdotool does as follows:

This tool lets you simulate keyboard input and mouse activity, move and resize windows, etc. It does this using X11’s XTEST extension and other Xlib functions.

Additionally, you can search for windows and move, resize, hide, and modify window properties like the title. If your window manager supports it, you can use xdotool to switch desktops, move windows between desktops, and change the number of desktops.

So I installed xdotool via the Gentoo package manager:

# emerge xdotool
# eix xdotool
[I] x11-misc/xdotool
     Available versions:  3.20150503.1-r1^t ~3.20160805.1^t {examples}
     Installed versions:  3.20150503.1-r1^t(22:51:30 02/04/17)(-examples)
     Homepage:            http://www.semicomplete.com/projects/xdotool/
     Description:         Simulate keyboard input and mouse activity, move and resize windows

Anyway, my Bash script using xdotool works a treat with Thunderbird (and KWrite, LibreOffice Writer, etc.). I used to experience a problem with certain characters, for example a colon was printed as a semi-colon (see the xdotool bug report xdotool writes the wrong case #121), but that no longer happens in my current KDE Plasma 5 installation:

Sent from: Galeão International Airport, Brazil
Local time now: Thu Jul 6 15:11:40 2017 UTC-03

What a useful tool xdotool is!

Stuttering audio in Linux: PulseAudio strikes again

I unmasked PulseAudio 10.0 back in January 2017 and installed it in my Gentoo Stable amd64 installation, and everything worked fine… until a couple of days ago, when the audio in streaming YouTube videos started to stutter every so often. It sounded rather like a scratched LP jumping. At first I thought the problem lay with Firefox, but the stuttering audio also occurred in Chrome. Then I wondered if my Internet connection was to blame; perhaps the ISP’s service had deteriorated. But a Windows 10 machine on my home network didn’t suffer from the problem, so that seemed to rule out the Internet connection. I tested the broadband throughput, and it was circa 32 Mbps, actually a little higher than the last time I tested it last year.

Now, Gentoo is a rolling distribution and I update my laptops regularly, but I couldn’t think what had been upgraded in the last couple of months that could be causing the problem. Although PulseAudio had not been upgraded since January, I began to wonder if PulseAudio could be involved, as my audio woes in the past have usually been due to PulseAudio.

I have always had PulseAudio installed with USE=”-realtime”:

user $ eix -I pulseaudio
[I] media-sound/pulseaudio
     Available versions:  10.0 {+X +alsa +alsa-plugin +asyncns bluetooth +caps dbus doc equalizer +gdbm +glib gnome gtk ipv6 jack libressl libsamplerate lirc native-headset neon ofono-headset +orc oss qt4 realtime selinux sox ssl system-wide systemd tcpd test +udev +webrtc-aec zeroconf ABI_MIPS="n32 n64 o32" ABI_PPC="32 64" ABI_S390="32 64" ABI_X86="32 64 x32"}
     Installed versions:  10.0(16:07:53 19/04/17)(X alsa alsa-plugin asyncns bluetooth caps dbus gdbm glib gnome gtk ipv6 jack orc qt4 ssl tcpd udev webrtc-aec zeroconf -doc -equalizer -libressl -libsamplerate -lirc -native-headset -neon -ofono-headset -oss -realtime -selinux -sox -system-wide -systemd -test ABI_MIPS="-n32 -n64 -o32" ABI_PPC="-32 -64" ABI_S390="-32 -64" ABI_X86="32 64 -x32")
     Homepage:            http://www.pulseaudio.org/
     Description:         A networked sound server with an advanced plugin system

but I wondered if PulseAudio’s real-time scheduling was somehow the cause of the problem, so I edited /etc/pulse/daemon.pa and added ‘realtime-scheduling = no‘ (I assume the default is ‘yes‘, as it was commented as such in the file):

; realtime-scheduling = yes
realtime-scheduling = no

Problem solved. PulseAudio is indeed a demon. 😡

Using the ClamAV daemon to scan files placed in my Downloads directory in Gentoo Linux

In a previous post I explained how to automatically detect files placed in my Downloads directory in Linux and scan them for viruses. The method I described in that post used clamscan, the command-line anti-virus scanner of ClamAV. Now, in addition ClamAV has a daemon (a program that runs continuously in the background), clamdscan, that you can enable. So I decided to switch to using clamdscan, as its response to downloaded files is much faster because the process waiting for new files to appear in ~/Downloads/ does not have to load clamscan from disk each time a new file arrives. Anyway, if you want to monitor a download directory in Gentoo Linux (running OpenRC) by using the ClamAV daemon — which will also download virus signature database updates automatically — then the procedure to set this up is given below.

1. Install clamav if it is not installed already:

root # emerge clamav

2. Add the service to the default runlevel:

root # rc-update add clamd default

The daemon will be launched automatically next time the computer boots.

3. The first download of the virus database has to be done manually:

root # freshclam

4. Start the daemon now:

root # rc-service clamd start

5. Create the Bash script ~/monitorDownloadsGUI with the following contents:

#!/bin/bash

DIR=$HOME/Downloads

# Get rid of old log file, if any
rm $HOME/virus-scan.log 2> /dev/null

IFS=$(echo -en "\n\b")

# Optionally, you can use shopt to avoid creating two processes due to the pipe
shopt -s lastpipe
inotifywait --quiet --monitor --event close_write,moved_to --recursive --format '%w%f' $DIR | while read FILE
# Added '--recursive' so that a directory copied into $DIR also triggers clamscan/clamdscan, although downloads
# from the Web would just be files, not directories.
do
     # Have to check file length is nonzero otherwise commands may be repeated
     if [ -s $FILE ]; then
          # Replace 'date >' with 'date >>' if you want to keep log file entries for previous scans.
          date > $HOME/virus-scan.log
          clamdscan --move=$HOME/virus-quarantine $FILE >> $HOME/virus-scan.log
          kdialog --title "Virus scan of $FILE" --msgbox "$(cat $HOME/virus-scan.log)"
     fi
done

Make it executable:

user $ chmod +x ~/monitorDownloadsGUI

6. Create the directory ~/virus-quarantine/ to store infected files pending investigation/deletion:

user $ mkdir ~/virus-quarantine

7. Install kdialog if it is not already installed:

root # emerge kdialog

8. Use ‘System Settings’ > ‘Startup and Shutdown’ > ‘Autostart’ to add the script ~/monitorDownloadsGUI to the list of script files that are automatically started each time you log in to KDE.

9. Log out then back in again, and you should see that everything is running as expected:

user $ rc-status | grep clam
 clamd                                                             [  started  ]

user $ ps -ef | grep clam | grep -v grep
clamav    1920     1  0 01:48 ?        00:00:00 /usr/sbin/clamd
clamav    1929     1  0 01:48 ?        00:00:00 /usr/bin/freshclam -d

user $ ps -ef | grep GUI | grep -v grep
fitzcarraldo      9143  8971  0 13:56 ?        00:00:00 /bin/bash /home/fitzcarraldo/.config/autostart-scripts/monitorDownloadsGUI.sh

10. To test, surf to http://www.eicar.org/85-0-Download.html and download one of the EICAR test files into your ~/Downloads/ directory. You should see a pop-up KDialog window with a message similar to the following:

Virus scan of /home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/eicarcom2.zip — KDialog

Mon 27 Feb 14:05:26 GMT 2017
/home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/eicarcom2.zip: Eicar-Test-Signature FOUND
/home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/eicarcom2.zip: moved to ‘/home/fitzcarraldo/virus-quarantine/eicarcom2.zip’

———– SCAN SUMMARY ———–
Infected files: 1
Time: 0.001 sec (0 m 0 s)

Note that the above-mentioned pop-up window may be preceded by one or more pop-up windows with an error message. I’m using the Chrome browser at the moment, but you may get a similar message if you are using another browser. Here is an example:

Virus scan of /home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/.com.google.Chrome.Uh3oGm — KDialog ?

Mon 27 Feb 14:16:30 GMT 2017
/home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/.com.google.Chrome.Uh3oGm: Access denied. ERROR

———– SCAN SUMMARY ———–
Infected files: 0
Total errors: 1
Time: 0.000 sec (0 m 0 s)

Read the error message and click ‘OK’, as this is not an actual problem; it is inotifywait detecting temporary files in the ~/Downloads/ directory during the download process. With larger files sometimes several such messages are displayed, presumably because the file being downloaded is being opened and closed more than once during the downloading process. This issue does not occur if you copy or move a file into ~/Downloads/ from another directory in your installation; try it and see for yourself. Then you only get the one pop-up window with the scan result for the file you put in ~/Downloads/.

Also have a look in ~/virus-quarantine/ and you will see the EICAR test file in that directory. You can delete it if you want (it is not infected with a real virus, so does no harm).

In future be sure to read the messages in the pop-up windows before clicking ‘OK’, as they will inform you that an infected file has been moved to the quarantine directory.

That’s all there is to it. Very simple, and quite handy if you want to check quickly that files you download don’t have a malware payload. Just make sure you download all files into ~/Downloads/ or they will not be checked automatically. Also, if you are given e.g. a USB pen drive with a file on it, you can copy the file to ~/Downloads/ if you want it to be scanned for malware.

Using an external USB 3.5-inch floppy disk drive in Linux

Back in 2004 I needed to get some files off my old 3.5″ floppy disks, so I bought an external USB floppy disk drive to use with a laptop running Windows XP. The label on the drive gives the manufacturer and model as ‘SmartDisk: FDUSB-TM2, Mitsumi Model #: D353FUE’.

Anyway, today I wanted to throw out some 720KB DD (Double Density) and 1440KB HD (High Density) 3.5″ floppy disks but first needed to check their contents and wipe them. So I dug out the SmartDisk USB drive to see if it would work with the current Gentoo Linux installation on my newest laptop. I was pleased to discover that it does, and below are some notes on how to use it in case anyone else needs to use one of these devices.

Once plugged in to a USB port on my laptop, the lsusb command shows the device has been recognised:

Bus 001 Device 013: ID 03ee:6901 Mitsumi SmartDisk FDD

Note that the Linux floppy driver is not needed for USB floppy disk drives:

root # grep -i CONFIG_BLK_DEV_FD /usr/src/linux/.config
# CONFIG_BLK_DEV_FD is not set

A Linux utility named ufiformat is used to low-level format floppy disks in USB floppy disk drives. A Gentoo Linux ebuild for Version 0.9.9 of ufiformat is listed below, and it can be used in a local overlay under the category sys-fs:

# Copyright 1999-2014 Gentoo Foundation
# Distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License v2
# $Header: $

EAPI=5

DESCRIPTION="USB Floppy Disk formatting tool"
HOMEPAGE="http://www.geocities.jp/tedi_world/format_usbfdd_e.html"
SRC_URI="http://www.geocities.jp/tedi_world/${P}.tar.gz"

LICENSE="GPL-2"
SLOT="0"
KEYWORDS="~amd64 ~x86"
IUSE=""

RDEPEND="sys-fs/e2fsprogs"
DEPEND=${RDEPEND}

The ufiformat utility is straightforward to use:

root # ufiformat --help
Usage: ufiformat [OPTION]... [DEVICE]
Format a floppy disk in a USB floppy disk DEVICE.

  -f, --format [SIZE]  specify format capacity SIZE in KB
                       without -f option, the format of the current media will be used
  -V, --verify         verify the medium after formatting
  -F, --force          do not perform any safety checks
  -i, --inquire        show device information, instead of performing format
                       without DEVICE argument, list USB floppy disk devices
  -v, --verbose        show detailed output
  -q, --quiet          suppress minor output
  -h, --help           show this message

To find the device name, use the blkid command before plugging in the USB cable and again after plugging in the USB cable. The extra device listed the second time will be the floppy disk drive. For example, in my case the new line at the end of the blkid output indicated the drive was /dev/sdd:

/dev/sdd: SEC_TYPE="msdos" UUID="BBBA-37AF" TYPE="vfat"

The fdisk command will confirm that the device is the floppy drive:

root # fdisk -l /dev/sdd
Disk /dev/sdd: 720 KiB, 737280 bytes, 1440 sectors
Units: sectors of 1 * 512 = 512 bytes
Sector size (logical/physical): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
I/O size (minimum/optimal): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
Disklabel type: dos
Disk identifier: 0x00000000

Note that /dev/sdd will not be listed in the output of blkid if there is no disk in the floppy drive, although the ls command will list /dev/sdd while the drive is connected to the computer.

Notice that there are no devices /dev/fd0, /dev/fd1, /dev/fd2 and /dev/fd3, etc. This does not matter.

root # ls /dev
audio1           dri      i2c-10   kmem          mapper              nvidiactl  sda1       sequencer2  tty0   tty2   tty30  tty41  tty52  tty63    usbmon3     vcs2    vcsa12
autofs           dsp1     i2c-11   kmsg          mcelog              nvram      sda2       sg0         tty1   tty20  tty31  tty42  tty53  tty7     usbmon4     vcs3    vcsa2
block            fb0      i2c-2    log           mem                 pktcdvd    sda3       sg1         tty10  tty21  tty32  tty43  tty54  tty8     v4l         vcs4    vcsa3
bsg              fd       i2c-3    loop-control  memory_bandwidth    port       sda5       sg2         tty11  tty22  tty33  tty44  tty55  tty9     vboxdrv     vcs5    vcsa4
bus              full     i2c-4    loop0         mixer               ptmx       sda6       sg3         tty12  tty23  tty34  tty45  tty56  ttyS0    vboxdrvu    vcs6    vcsa5
char             fuse     i2c-5    loop1         mixer1              pts        sda7       shm         tty13  tty24  tty35  tty46  tty57  ttyS1    vboxnetctl  vcs7    vcsa6
console          hidraw0  i2c-6    loop2         mqueue              random     sdb        snapshot    tty14  tty25  tty36  tty47  tty58  ttyS2    vboxusb     vcs8    vcsa7
core             hidraw1  i2c-7    loop3         network_latency     rfkill     sdb1       snd         tty15  tty26  tty37  tty48  tty59  ttyS3    vcs         vcs9    vcsa8
cpu              hidraw2  i2c-8    loop4         network_throughput  root       sdc        stderr      tty16  tty27  tty38  tty49  tty6   urandom  vcs1        vcsa    vcsa9
cpu_dma_latency  hpet     i2c-9    loop5         null                rtc        sdc1       stdin       tty17  tty28  tty39  tty5   tty60  usbmon0  vcs10       vcsa1   vga_arbiter
cuse             i2c-0    initctl  loop6         nvidia-modeset      rtc0       sdd        stdout      tty18  tty29  tty4   tty50  tty61  usbmon1  vcs11       vcsa10  video0
disk             i2c-1    input    loop7         nvidia0             sda        sequencer  tty         tty19  tty3   tty40  tty51  tty62  usbmon2  vcs12       vcsa11  zero
root # ls -la /dev/fd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 13 Jan 17 02:13 /dev/fd -> /proc/self/fd
root # ls -la /proc/self/fd
total 0
dr-x------ 2 root root  0 Jan 17 04:26 .
dr-xr-xr-x 8 root root  0 Jan 17 04:26 ..
lrwx------ 1 root root 64 Jan 17 04:26 0 -> /dev/pts/1
lrwx------ 1 root root 64 Jan 17 04:26 1 -> /dev/pts/1
lrwx------ 1 root root 64 Jan 17 04:26 2 -> /dev/pts/1
lr-x------ 1 root root 64 Jan 17 04:26 3 -> /proc/17669/fd

To format an HD floppy disk with the FAT file system, I did the following:

root # ufiformat -f 1440 /dev/sdd
geometry: track=80, head=2, sector=18, block=512
done                                   
root # /usr/sbin/mkfs.vfat /dev/sdd
mkfs.fat 4.0 (2016-05-06)
attribute "partition" not found
root # ufiformat -i /dev/sdd
vendor:  MITSUMI
product: USB FDD
write protect: off
media type: 2HD
status      block size   kb
formatted    2880  512 1440
formattable  2880  512 1440
formattable  1232 1024 1232
formattable  2400  512 1200

To format a DD floppy disk with the FAT file system, I did the following:

root # ufiformat -f 720 /dev/sdd
geometry: track=80, head=2, sector=9, block=512
done                                   
root # /usr/sbin/mkfs.vfat /dev/sdd
mkfs.fat 4.0 (2016-05-06)
attribute "partition" not found
root # ufiformat -i /dev/sdd
vendor:  MITSUMI
product: USB FDD
write protect: off
media type: 2DD
status      block size   kb
formatted    1440  512  720
formattable  1440  512  720

I use the KDE Desktop Environment. The Device Notifier widget in the System Tray shows the drive and — once a formatted floppy disk is in the drive — it is possible to use the Device Notifier to mount, open and unmount the floppy disk. However, it is also possible to use the command line:

root # mkdir /mnt/floppy
root # mount /dev/sdd /mnt/floppy
root # ls /mnt/floppy
root # cp /test.txt /mnt/floppy/
root # ls /mnt/floppy
test.txt
root # umount /dev/sdd

Earlier in this post I showed examples of formatting floppy disks using the FAT file system, but it is of course possible to format them using other file systems, such as:

root # mkfs.ext2 /dev/sdd
mke2fs 1.43.3 (04-Sep-2016)
/dev/sdd contains a vfat file system
Proceed anyway? (y,n) y
Creating filesystem with 720 1k blocks and 96 inodes

Allocating group tables: done                            
Writing inode tables: done                            
Writing superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done

Anyway, I was able to check the contents of the floppies and wipe them before disposing of them. It’s good to know that some old technologies can still be used when needs be. I won’t be throwing out the old floppy disk drive just yet.

A method of ‘masking’ an OpenRC service (NetworkManager, in this case)

A Gentoo Linux user with an installation using OpenRC recently asked in the Gentoo Forums how to either a) disable NetworkManager so that it would not interfere with his netifrc configuration to give his installation a static IP address, or b) configure NetworkManager to use a static IP address (see the thread NetworkManager and static IP [SOLVED! THANKYOU]). In the end he solved the problem by uninstalling NetworkManager, the cleanest solution in his case given that his desktop machine is always in the same location and he does not need the features NetworkManager provides.

Now, although I use NetworkManager instead of netifrc, what intrigued me is that disabling the NetworkManager service using the standard command below does not stop the NetworkManager init script from running at boot-up:

root # rc-update delete NetworkManager default

Despite using the above command, following a reboot the NetworkManager service is still started and becomes active, and the NetworkManager daemon is running. Web browsers and other applications requiring network access still work. In order to stop the service running immediately so that his netifrc static IP address configuration could work, the aforementioned Gentoo user had to stop the NetworkManager service as follows:

root # /etc/init.d/NetworkManager stop

(The command ‘rc-service NetworkManager stop‘ does the same thing.)

The behaviour is the same on my laptop running Gentoo with OpenRC 0.22.4 and NetworkManager installed by networkmanager-1.4.0-r1 ebuild (with the upstream patch and necessary edit to the init script mentioned in Gentoo Bug Report No. 595806 – net-misc/networkmanager-1.4.0-r1[consolekit]: doesn’t automatically activate connections marked with "Automatically connect to this network when it’s available").

So two questions arose: What launches the NetworkManager init script when it has not been added to a runlevel? What needs to be done to stop this from happening? My curiosity was piqued.

As it happens, a somewhat similar situation exists when using systemd rather than OpenRC, as explained in Arch Linux Forums thread [SOLVED] NetworkManager auto restart even though I stop it. and Red Hat Bugzilla Report No. 815243 – Even though NetworkManager was manually stopped, it gets restarted automatically via D-Bus, although those were primarily concerned with how to prevent NetworkManager being restarted during the same session, i.e. without having rebooted.

The following systemd commands are needed to stop immediately the NetworkManager service and keep it from being restarted subsequently during the current session and after rebooting:

root # systemctl mask NetworkManager
root # systemctl stop NetworkManager
root # systemctl disable NetworkManager

Unfortunately there is no equivalent mask command for an OpenRC service. The equivalent OpenRC commands for the second and third commands above are:

root # rc-service NetworkManager stop
root # rc-update delete NetworkManager default

However, as I pointed out earlier, for some reason the latter command does not stop OpenRC running the NetworkManager init script at boot.

I wondered how I could ‘mask’ the NetworkManager service in OpenRC. I asked myself what the systemd mask command actually does. Well, it simply creates a symlink from /etc/systemd/system/NetworkManager.service to /dev/null so that there is no longer a real unit file for systemd to use, and therefore systemd can no longer launch the service. So why not do something similar in OpenRC. I hit upon the idea of telling the NetworkManager init script it needs a non-existent service in order to start, thus preventing OpenRC from starting the NetworkManager service:

root # echo 'rc_need="non-existent_service"' >> /etc/conf.d/NetworkManager # (Or just edit the file manually.)

That is all there is to it. When booting, OpenRC now displays the messages shown below:

* ERROR: NetworkManager needs service(s) non-existent_service
* ERROR: cannot start netmount as NetworkManager would not start
* ERROR: cannot start samba as NetworkManager would not start

As shown below, now the service is not started, so the NetworkManager daemon is never launched:

root # rc-status
Runlevel: default
 dbus                                                  [  started  ]
 syslog-ng                                             [  started  ]
 consolekit                                            [  started  ]
 netmount                                              [  stopped  ]
 cupsd                                                 [  started  ]
 samba                                                 [  stopped  ]
 cronie                                                [  started  ]
 clamd                                                 [  started  ]
 bluetooth                                             [  started  ]
 xdm                                                   [  started  ]
 cups-browsed                                          [  started  ]
 sshd                                                  [  started  ]
 local                                                 [  started  ]
Dynamic Runlevel: hotplugged
Dynamic Runlevel: needed/wanted
 modules-load                                          [  started  ]
 xdm-setup                                             [  started  ]
 avahi-daemon                                          [  started  ]
Dynamic Runlevel: manual
root # ps -ef | grep -v grep | grep -i network
root #

As expected, given that the netmount service and samba service depend on the NetworkManager service starting, neither of those services were able to start either.

Furthermore, because I masked the service, if I attempt to start it manually:

root # rc-service NetworkManager restart
 * ERROR: NetworkManager needs service(s) non-existent_service

To unmask the service in OpenRC, all that is needed is:

root # sed -i '/rc_need="non-existent_service"/d' /etc/conf.d/NetworkManager # (Or just edit the file manually.)

Note that, instead of “non-existent_service” I could have written “fubar”, “null” or any other string that is not the name of an actual service. But “non-existent_service” is more meaningful and less likely to confuse me when viewing system messages and contents of the service configuration file.

In summary…

Why does OpenRC run the NetworkManager service init script when it is not in any runlevel?

I have no idea!

I wondered if the D-Bus service does it. The Arch Wiki article on NetworkManager claims this is the case (see the section titled Disable NetworkManager). However, my attempts at preventing D-Bus doing anything to NetworkManager did not stop the NetworkManager init script from being run at boot. I deleted /etc/dbus-1/system.d/org.freedesktop.NetworkManager.conf and /etc/dbus-1/system.d/nm-dispatcher.conf but that did not help. Neither did creating an appropriate /etc/dbus-1/system.d/org.freedesktop.NetworkManager.conf or /etc/dbus-1/system-local.conf. There is no /usr/share/dbus-1/system-services/org.freedesktop.NetworkManager.service file in my Gentoo installation using OpenRC, but creating one did not help either. So, if you know what runs the OpenRC NetworkManager init script when it is not in any runlevel, please post a comment.

Anyway, I now know how to prevent it happening, so I have satisfied my curiosity. Below I list the commands I actually used in a Gentoo Linux installation (amd64, OpenRC) and a Sabayon Linux installation (~amd64, systemd) to check the functionality.

OpenRC

The following two (optionally three) commands are needed to stop immediately the NetworkManager service and prevent it being restarted subsequently during this session and after rebooting:

root # rc-service NetworkManager stop
root # echo 'rc_need="non-existent_service"' >> /etc/conf.d/NetworkManager
root # rc-update del NetworkManager default # (Optional.)

The following two (optionally three) commands are needed to unmask the NetworkManager service and start it immediately, and make it start automatically after rebooting:

root # sed -i '/rc_need="non-existent_service"/d' /etc/conf.d/NetworkManager
root # rc-service NetworkManager restart
root # rc-update add NetworkManager default # Only needed if I earlier deleted the service from the default runlevel.

systemd

The following three commands are needed to stop immediately the NetworkManager service and prevent it being restarted subsequently during this session and after rebooting:

root # systemctl mask NetworkManager
root # systemctl stop NetworkManager
root # systemctl disable NetworkManager

The following three systemd commands are needed to unmask the NetworkManager service and start it immediately, and also make it start automatically after rebooting:

root # systemctl unmask NetworkManager
root # systemctl enable NetworkManager
root # systemctl start NetworkManager

A correct method of configuring Samba for browsing SMB shares in a home network

SMB
SMB (Server Message Block) is the underlying protocol that Microsoft Windows computers use to connect to resources, such as file shares and printers, and to transfer information when the connections are established. Samba is the Linux implementation of SMB that allows file and printer information to be transferred between Windows and Linux computers. An early variant of the SMB protocol is known as ‘CIFS’ (Common Internet File System). CIFS is actually obsolete, so the correct term to use these days is ‘SMB’ (see the blog post Why You Should Never Again Utter The Word, "CIFS"), although ‘CIFS’ is still used sometimes when referring to SMB.

Terminology
You are likely to come across several terms when reading about Samba, such as NetBIOS, Active Directory (AD), Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), Kerberos, Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) and Winbind, to name but a few. Most are used in larger corporate or enterprise networks but you can ignore most of them – only broadcast NetBIOS name resolution or WINS are necessary to configure Samba in small home networks. For example, my home network uses broadcast NetBIOS name resolution and sometimes has up to 15 devices connected (Linux, Windows 7/10, macOS, Android and iOS), all of which can browse file shares using SMB/Samba.

Note: You should not use Broadcast NetBIOS Name Resolution and WINS at the same time.

To explain the terminology – Active Directory is a central database of user accounts and passwords used primarily in Windows networks to authenticate users, and LDAP is the protocol that clients and servers use to access the Active Directory database. Kerberos is a separate encrypted authentication mechanism used for client-server applications, such as computers that access a specific file or web server, or SQL database. WINS is a mechanism for storing Windows computer name to IP address mappings on a central server – the WINS Server. Computers in a LAN interrogate the WINS server to obtain the IP addresses of other computers. It’s a bit like DNS except that the WINS Server stores Windows computer names rather than URLs or domain names. Winbind is a Unix/Linux mechanism that allows Windows NT accounts to look like a Unix service to Unix/Linux machines.

NetBIOS
How is NetBIOS relevant to Samba? Samba uses NetBIOS in three different ways:

1. NetBIOS over UDP Port 137 to advertise Windows computer names for name to IP address resolution;
   

2. NetBIOS over UDP Port 138 to advertise services that the computer offers and to elect a ‘Master Browser’ (explained below);
   

3. SMB over NetBIOS over TCP/IP Port 139 to connect to file shares or printers. Once connected, the computers may negotiate using SMB direct over TCP/IP Port 445 to improve efficiency of the connection.

NetBIOS over UDP (Port 137) is a connectionless broadcast protocol that Windows machines use to advertise over the LAN their names and corresponding IP addresses. Other computers receive the broadcasts and cache the names and IP addresses in a name to IP address mapping table.

NetBIOS over UDP (Port 138) is a connectionless broadcast protocol that Windows machines use to advertise their eligibility to become the Master Browser or Backup Browser for a Windows Workgroup in the LAN. An automatic election process elects only one machine in a Workgroup to become the Master Browser for that workgroup, and elects one or more ‘Backup Browsers’ in the Workgroup. The Master Browser and Backup Browser(s) collate a list of all the computers in the Workgroup and the services that they offer. It is more efficient for a single computer to assume the master role and to collate the information than it is for the information to remain distributed. When you click on ‘Network’† in File Explorer’s ‘Network Neighbourhood’‡ window, your computer interrogates the Master Browser(s) to obtain a list of the Windows Workgroups in the LAN, the members of the Workgroup(s) and the file and printer services that each Workgroup member offers. If the Master Browser fails or is disconnected, a re-election takes place and a new Master Browser is elected from the list of Backup Browsers in that Workgroup. The same process occurs if you are using a Linux file manager (Dolphin in KDE, Nautilus in GNOME, etc.) with Samba. You can configure the ‘priority’ of the Samba server in each machine in the Workgroup so that it is either more likely or less likely to be elected the Master Browser for the Workgroup. You could even configure Samba on a Linux machine so that it will never be a Master Browser. (It is also possible to configure a Windows machine so that it will never be a Master Browser.)

    † Renamed ‘Entire Network’ in some versions of Windows.
    ‡ Renamed ‘My Network Places’ or simply ‘Network’ in some versions of Windows.

SMB over NetBIOS over TCP/IP (Port 139) is a connection orientated protocol that Windows computers use to connect to file shares and printers, to retrieve directory listings and to transfer files. Having obtained a list of computers and file shares from the Master Browser, if you click on a particular file share to connect to it, your computer looks up the name of the target computer in the local name table, obtains the target computer’s IP address and initiates a SMB over NetBIOS over TCP/IP connection to it. The target computer then issues a username and password prompt for you to complete the connection. If authentication is successful, the SMB protocol is used to transfer a directory listing of the contents of the share. If you drag and drop a file from the share to your local machine, or vice-versa, SMB is used to transfer the file. Behind the scenes, during the initial connection set-up, your computer and the target carry out a negotiation. If both machines support SMB direct over TCP/IP, the directory listing and subsequent file transfer are transported using SMB over TCP/IP Port 445. This is much more efficient because it eliminates completely the NetBIOS overhead.

When you install and configure Samba on a Linux computer, the ‘smbd‘ and ‘nmbd‘ daemons enable all of the functionality above. In a small network you do not need to enable or use AD, LDAP, Kerberos, WINS, Winbind or anything else for that matter. Samba and its built-in NetBIOS mechanisms will allow you to participate in a Windows Workgroup environment to share and use folders, files and printers.

Workgroups
The majority of Windows computers running in home networks are configured, by default, in a single Workgroup. A Workgroup is a simple way for computers in small networks to advertise and share resources, such as folders and printers, with other members of the same group. You can configure multiple Workgroups in the same LAN but each computer can belong to only one Workgroup. The theory is that different computers can share different resources within their group.

Please Note: A Windows Workgroup is not the same thing as a Windows HomeGroup. The latter concept was introduced in Windows 7 and is an ‘evolution’ of the Workgroup concept, in which you share folders and files but specify a pre-determined group password. All computers wishing to join the HomeGroup specify the same password to connect to the resources in that group. Samba does not participate in Windows HomeGroups because the latter is a Windows-only feature.

Configuring Samba
Firstly, install Samba on the Linux computer. Use Samba 4 and avoid Samba 3, which is obsolete. I have several laptops and a Network Addressable Storage (NAS) server, all running Linux with various releases of Samba 4. I also have a desktop computer running Windows 10 for family use. In addition, family and friends connect various laptops running Windows 7 and Windows 10 to my home network, as well as tablets and smartphones (see How to Access Shared Windows Folders on Android, iPad, and iPhone). This NAS runs 24/7 so I could have configured Samba to always make it the Master Browser but this is not necessary as the remaining computers in the network will elect a new Master Browser should the NAS fail.

Below is a summary of the steps to configure Samba in a Windows Workgroup:

1. Configure the same Workgroup name on all of the Windows computers (for example, How to Change Workgroup in Windows 10). The default Windows 10 Workgroup is called ‘WORKGROUP‘. In the example further down I used the Windows GUI to change the Workgroup name to ‘GREENGABLES‘. There is plenty of information on the Internet about how to configure Windows file sharing so I won’t repeat any of it here (for example, How to Enable Network Discovery and Configure Sharing Options in Windows 10 and How to set up file sharing on Windows 10 (Share files using File Explorer)).
   

2. Configure Samba on the Linux machines by editing the file ‘/etc/samba/smb.conf‘ on each. The contents of the file ‘smb.conf‘ are shown below for a Linux NAS and two Linux laptops. The NetBIOS name of the NAS is ‘akhanaten‘ and the laptops are ‘tutankhamun‘ and ‘smenkhkare‘. You can use either of the smb.conf files of the two laptops as a template for the smb.conf file of any Linux computer in your own home network. You can ignore the smb.conf file of the NAS if you simply want to be able to browse SMB/Samba shares on other computers in your home network.
   

3. Use the command ‘pdbedit‘ on each Linux machine to define and configure the Samba users on that machine. The command ‘smbpasswd‘ is an alternative to ‘pdbedit‘ but I recommend you use the latter, as ‘smbpasswd‘ is deprecated. Each Samba user must exist as a Linux user because it is the Linux users who own the shares and are used for authentication.
   

4. The NAS has Linux users ‘anne‘, ‘marilla‘, ‘matthew‘ and ‘guest‘, whereas each of the laptops has a Linux user ‘anne‘. The user name does not have to be the same on different computers.
   

5. The purpose of each variable in ‘smb.conf‘ is explained on the applicable Samba manual page (enter the command ‘man smb.conf‘ in a terminal window) and the Samba documentation page for smb.conf on the Web.

Furthermore, make sure the Winbind daemon is not running. If Winbind is installed, make sure the service is not running and is disabled.

smb.conf of NAS running Ubuntu Server Edition:

[global]
# SMB uses ports 139 & 445, as explained in this blog post
smb ports = 139 445
netbios name = akhanaten
workgroup = greengables

# Use either NetBIOS broadcast for name resolution or entries in the /etc/hosts file
name resolve order = bcast host

# Don't care if the workgroup name is upper or lower case
case sensitive = no

# User authentication is used to access the shares
security = user
map to guest = bad user
guest account = guest

# Don't allow the use of root for network shares
invalid users = root

# Domain master only applies to LANs that are inter-connected across a WAN
domain master = no

# This machine is eligible to be a Master Browser and its priority is 4
# (the higher the os level, the more preferred to be Master Browser)
# (the maximum allowable value for os level is 255)
preferred master = yes
os level = 4
dns proxy = no

# Always advertise the shares automatically
auto services = global

# Interfaces on which to listen for NetBIOS broadcasts and to allow SMB connections
# Include "lo" because it is the internal interface
# em1 is the name of the Ethernet interface, found using the ifconfig command
interfaces = lo em1
bind interfaces only = yes
log file = /var/log/samba/log.%m
max log size = 1000
syslog = 0

panic action = /usr/share/samba/panic-action %d
server role = standalone server
passdb backend = tdbsam
obey pam restrictions = yes

# Don't synchronise the Linux and Samba user passwords - they can be different
unix password sync = no
passwd program = /usr/bin/passwd %u
passwd chat = *Enter\snew\s*\spassword:* %n\n *Retype\snew\s*\spassword:* %n\n *password\supdated\ssuccessfully* .
pam password change = yes

# This Samba configuration does not advertise any printers
load printers = no

# File to map long usernames to shorter Unix usernames, if necessary
username map = /etc/samba/smbusers

# Allow guest user access if specified in the shares
guest ok = yes

# First user share is called "anne" - only user "anne" specified below can connect to the share
[anne]
comment = "anne share"
path = /nas/shares/anne
writeable = yes
valid users = anne

# Second user share is called "marilla" - only user "marilla" specified below can connect to the share
[marilla]
comment = "marilla share"
path = /nas/shares/marilla
writeable = yes
valid users = marilla

# Third user share is called "matthew" - only user "matthew" specified below can connect to the share
[matthew]
comment = "matthew share"
path = /nas/shares/matthew
writeable = yes
valid users = matthew

# Fourth user share is called "guest" - any user can connect to the share
[guest]
comment = "guest account"
path = /nas/shares/guest
writeable = yes
guest ok = yes
valid users = guest anne marilla matthew

smb.conf of laptop #1 running Gentoo Linux:

[global]
;no need to specify 'smb ports' as ports 139 & 445 used by default
workgroup = GREENGABLES
netbios name = tutankhamun
case sensitive = no
browseable = yes

;If this machine becomes a Master Browser, the following parameter allows it to hold the browse list
browse list = yes

printcap name = cups
printing = cups

log file = /var/log/samba/log.%m
max log size = 50

security = user
map to guest = bad user

encrypt passwords = yes
passdb backend = tdbsam

domain master = no
local master = yes
preferred master = yes
; os level = 6 on the other laptop, so I have made it 5 on this laptop.
os level = 5
name resolve order = bcast
wins support = no
dns proxy = no

;Listen for NetBIOS on Ethernet and Wireless interfaces
;Names of the interfaces found using ifconfig command
interfaces = enp4s0f1 wlp3s0

[netlogon]
comment = Network Logon Service
path = /var/lib/samba/netlogon
guest ok = yes

[printers]
comment = All Printers
path = /var/spool/samba
guest ok = yes
printable = yes
create mask = 0700

[print$]
path = /var/lib/samba/printers
write list = @adm root
guest ok = yes

[anne-share]
path = /home/anne/anne-share/
guest ok = yes
;read only = no
writeable = yes
browseable = yes
valid users = anne

[Public]
path = /home/anne/Public/
guest ok = yes
;read only = no
writeable = yes
browseable = yes

smb.conf of laptop #2 running Gentoo Linux:

[global]
;no need to specify 'smb ports' as ports 139 & 445 used by default
workgroup = GREENGABLES
netbios name = smenkhkare
case sensitive = no
browseable = yes

;If this machine becomes a Master Browser, the following parameter allows it to hold the browse list
browse list = yes

printcap name = cups
printing = cups

log file = /var/log/samba/log.%m
max log size = 50

security = user
map to guest = bad user

encrypt passwords = yes
passdb backend = tdbsam

domain master = no
local master = yes
preferred master = yes
; os level = 5 on the other laptop so I have made it 6 on this laptop
os level = 6
name resolve order = bcast
wins support = no
dns proxy = no

;Listen for NetBIOS on Ethernet and Wireless interfaces
;Names of the interfaces found using ifconfig command
interfaces = eth0 wlan0

[netlogon]
comment = Network Logon Service
path = /var/lib/samba/netlogon
guest ok = yes

[printers]
comment = All Printers
path = /var/spool/samba
guest ok = yes
printable = yes
create mask = 0700

[print$]
path = /var/lib/samba/printers
write list = @adm root
guest ok = yes

[anne-share]
path = /home/anne/share-share/
guest ok = yes
;read only = no
writeable = yes
browseable = yes
valid users = anne

[Public]
path = /home/anne/Public/
guest ok = yes
;read only = no
writeable = yes
browseable = yes

Samba Commands
The following are Samba commands you can use on any of the Linux computers to find information on the Samba shares.

The ‘smbtree‘ command lists the computers currently using SMB in the local network:

user $ smbtree
GREENGABLES
        \\AKHANATEN                     Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu
                \\AKHANATEN\IPC$                IPC Service (Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu)
                \\AKHANATEN\guest               guest account
                \\AKHANATEN\matthew             matthew share
                \\AKHANATEN\marilla             marilla share
                \\AKHANATEN\anne                anne share
        \\SMENKHKARE                    Samba 4.2.14
                \\SMENKHKARE\Samsung_CLX-8385ND Samsung CLX-8385ND
                \\SMENKHKARE\Canon_MP510_Printer        Canon MP510 Printer
                \\SMENKHKARE\Virtual_PDF_Printer        Virtual PDF Printer
                \\SMENKHKARE\Canon_MP560_WiFi   Canon MP560 WiFi
                \\SMENKHKARE\IPC$               IPC Service (Samba 4.2.14)
                \\SMENKHKARE\Public         
                \\SMENKHKARE\anne-share     
                \\SMENKHKARE\print$         
                \\SMENKHKARE\netlogon           Network Logon Service
        \\TUTANKHAMUN                   Samba 4.2.11
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Samsung_Xpress_C460FW     Samsung Xpress C460FW
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP560_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP560
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP510_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP510
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Virtual_PDF_Printer       Virtual PDF Printer
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\IPC$              IPC Service (Samba 4.2.11)
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Public
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\anne-share
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\print$
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\netlogon          Network Logon Service
HOME
        \\BTHUB5                        BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server
                \\BTHUB5\IPC$                   IPC Service (BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server)

‘BTHUB5‘ is a BT Home Hub 5 (a network router and broadband modem). Notice that it is configured by default to be in a Windows Workgroup named ‘HOME‘. The BT Home Hub 5 has a USB port to which an external USB HDD could be attached, so I assume computers in the home network could have been configured to use the HOME Workgroup instead of GREENGABLES and hence access that USB HDD, i.e. use it as a NAS. However, no HDD is attached to the BT Home Hub 5, so just ignore the BTHUB5 device and the HOME Workgroup.

The ‘nmblookup‘ command is used to see which services each computer offers. The strings ‘..__MSBROWSE__.‘ and ‘<1d>‘ in the output indicate that the computer is currently the Master Browser (see the Microsoft TechNet article NetBIOS Over TCP/IP for details):

user $ nmblookup akhanaten
192.168.1.70 akhanaten<00>

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.70
Looking up status of 192.168.1.70
        AKHANATEN       <00> -         B <ACTIVE>
        AKHANATEN       <03> -         B <ACTIVE>
        AKHANATEN       <20> -         B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00

user $ nmblookup tutankhamun
192.168.1.79 tutankhamun<00>

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.79
Looking up status of 192.168.1.79
        TUTANKHAMUN     <00> -         B <ACTIVE>
        TUTANKHAMUN     <03> -         B <ACTIVE>
        TUTANKHAMUN     <20> -         B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00

user $ nmblookup smenkhkare
192.168.1.90 smenkhkare<00>

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.90
Looking up status of 192.168.1.90
        SMENKHKARE      <00> -         B <ACTIVE>
        SMENKHKARE      <03> -         B <ACTIVE>
        SMENKHKARE      <20> -         B <ACTIVE>
        ..__MSBROWSE__. <01> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1d> -         B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00

‘..__MSBROWSE__.‘ and ‘<1d>‘ in the above output indicates that the laptop named smenkhkare is currently the Master Browser of the Workgroup named GREENGABLES. See the Microsoft TechNet article NetBIOS Over TCP/IP to interpret the output.

Now let’s look at what happens when thutmoseiii, the Windows 10 desktop connected to this home network, is powered up:

user $ smbtree
GREENGABLES
        \\AKHANATEN                     Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu
                \\AKHANATEN\IPC$                IPC Service (Samba 4.3.11-Ubuntu)
                \\AKHANATEN\guest               guest account
                \\AKHANATEN\matthew             matthew share
                \\AKHANATEN\marilla             marilla share
                \\AKHANATEN\anne                anne share
        \\SMENKHKARE                    Samba 4.2.14
                \\SMENKHKARE\Samsung_CLX-8385ND Samsung CLX-8385ND
                \\SMENKHKARE\Canon_MP510_Printer        Canon MP510 Printer
                \\SMENKHKARE\Virtual_PDF_Printer        Virtual PDF Printer
                \\SMENKHKARE\Canon_MP560_WiFi   Canon MP560 WiFi
                \\SMENKHKARE\IPC$               IPC Service (Samba 4.2.14)
                \\SMENKHKARE\Public
                \\SMENKHKARE\anne-share
                \\SMENKHKARE\print$
                \\SMENKHKARE\netlogon           Network Logon Service
        \\TUTANKHAMUN                   Samba 4.2.11
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Samsung_Xpress_C460FW     Samsung Xpress C460FW
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP560_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP560
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Canon_MP510_Printer       Canon PIXMA MP510
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Virtual_PDF_Printer       Virtual PDF Printer
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\IPC$              IPC Service (Samba 4.2.11)
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\Public
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\anne-share
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\print$
                \\TUTANKHAMUN\netlogon          Network Logon Service
        \\THUTMOSEIII                   Lounge Computer
HOME
        \\BTHUB5                        BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server
                \\BTHUB5\IPC$                   IPC Service (BT Home Hub 5.0A File Server)

user $ nmblookup thutmoseiii
192.168.1.74 thutmoseiii<00>
192.168.56.1 thutmoseiii<00>

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.74
Looking up status of 192.168.1.74
        THUTMOSEIII     <20> -         B <ACTIVE> 
        THUTMOSEIII     <00> -         B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE> 

        MAC Address = AA-BB-CC-DD-EE-FF (anonymised by me)

So Linux computer smenkhkare remained the Master Browser. This is because the Windows 10 computer has its Registry subkey HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\Browser\Parameters\MaintainServerList set to ‘Auto‘, and also there is no subkey \HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\Browser\Parameters\IsDomainMaster so implicitly its value is False (i.e. the computer is not a Preferred Master Browser). See Microsoft TechNet article Specifying Browser Computers for details.

By the way, notice that two IP addresses are listed for thutmoseiii. This is because thutmoseiii is connected to two network adapters: 192.168.1.74 is the IP address of thutmoseiii in the home network, and 192.168.56.1 is the IP address of the virtual network interface for the virtual computers in VirtualBox installed on thutmoseiii.

If the Samba service on smenkhkare is now stopped from the command line, Windows 10 computer thutmoseiii is elected Master Browser after more than a minute has elapsed:

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.74
Looking up status of 192.168.1.74
        THUTMOSEIII     <20> -         B <ACTIVE> 
        THUTMOSEIII     <00> -         B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE> 
        GREENGABLES     <1d> -         B <ACTIVE> 
        ..__MSBROWSE__. <01> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = AA-BB-CC-DD-EE-FF (anonymised by me)

If the Samba service on smenkhkare is then restarted from the command line and the Windows 10 computer is allowed to go to sleep, the laptop named smenkhkare becomes the Master Brower again as expected.

NetBIOS Commands in Windows
Now let’s look at some NetBIOS equivalent commands on the Windows 10 computer (Windows computer name: thutmoseiii).

First let’s see which remote computers thutmoseiii detects:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -c

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

                  NetBIOS Remote Cache Name Table

        Name              Type       Host Address    Life [sec]
    ------------------------------------------------------------
    AKHANATEN      <20>  UNIQUE          192.168.1.70        381
    TUTANKHAMUN    <20>  UNIQUE          192.168.1.79        407
    SMENKHKARE     <20>  UNIQUE          192.168.1.90        416

WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

Four adapters are listed in the above output: ‘VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2‘, ‘Ethernet‘, ‘WiFi‘ and ‘Local Area Connection* 11‘. Let’s look at why they are listed:

• The first adapter listed exists because VirtualBox is installed on thutmoseiii and has a virtual network adapter to enable virtual computers to be networked together (see What Is A Oracle VM VirtualBox Host-Only Network Adapter? if you don’t know what is a VirtualBox Host-Only Network Adapter).
  

• The second adapter listed is the computer’s Ethernet adapter. thutmoseiii is connected to the home network via this interface, and the above output shows that thutmoseiii has correctly detected the three other computers connected to the home network.
  

• The third adapter listed is the computer’s wireless adapter. thutmoseiii also has a Wi-Fi interface, currently disabled in Windows, hence no active wireless connection is listed.
  

• The fourth adapter is a ‘Microsoft Wi-Fi Direct Virtual Adapter’ according to the output of the ipconfig/all command. As the Wi-Fi interface is currently disabled in Windows, no active connection is listed here either.

Now let’s see what thutmoseiii reports about itself:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -n

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

                NetBIOS Local Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    THUTMOSEIII    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    THUTMOSEIII    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1D>  UNIQUE      Registered
    ☺☻__MSBROWSE__☻<01>  GROUP       Registered

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

                NetBIOS Local Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    THUTMOSEIII    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    THUTMOSEIII    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered

WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

The above is correct: thutmoseiii is the Master Browser in the Windows Workgroup of VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2, but not a Master Browser in the GREENGABLES Workgroup to which thutmoseiii is connected by Ethernet cable. As the Wi-Fi interface in thutmoseiii is currently disabled, no active wireless connection is listed.

Now let’s take a look at what thutmoseiii reports about akhanaten:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -a akhanaten

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

           NetBIOS Remote Machine Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    AKHANATEN      <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    AKHANATEN      <03>  UNIQUE      Registered
    AKHANATEN      <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered

    MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00


WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

The above is also correct, as akhanaten is indeed not a Master Browser.

Now let’s have a look at what thutmoseiii reports about tutankhamun:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -a tutankhamun

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

           NetBIOS Remote Machine Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    TUTANKHAMUN    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    TUTANKHAMUN    <03>  UNIQUE      Registered
    TUTANKHAMUN    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered

    MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00


WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

The above is also correct, as tutankhamun is indeed not a Master Browser.

Now let’s have a look at what thutmoseiii reports about smenkhkare:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -a smenkhkare

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

           NetBIOS Remote Machine Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    SMENKHKARE     <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    SMENKHKARE     <03>  UNIQUE      Registered
    SMENKHKARE     <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    ☺☻__MSBROWSE__☻<01>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1D>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered

    MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00


WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

The above is also correct, as smenkhkare is indeed the Master Browser (notice the ‘☺☻__MSBROWSE__☻‘ and ‘<1D>‘).

Q.E.D.
So there you have it; Browser Elections take place and the Master Browser is any one of the Linux or Windows computers in the home network, thus enabling SMB browsing to take place. No WINS, no LDAP, no AD, no Kerberos. All SMB communication is carried out using NetBIOS over TCP/IP and Broadcast NetBIOS Name Resolution, as shown by the output of the command ‘nbtstat -r‘ on thutmoseiii:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -r

    NetBIOS Names Resolution and Registration Statistics
    ----------------------------------------------------

    Resolved By Broadcast     = 65
    Resolved By Name Server   = 0

    Registered By Broadcast   = 233
    Registered By Name Server = 0

    NetBIOS Names Resolved By Broadcast
---------------------------------------------
           BTHUB5         <00>
           呂啈㕂†††††䱃噅坏㌲匰⁓†
           TUTANKHAMUN    <00>
           AKHANATEN      <00>
           SMENKHKARE     <00>

I assume the line of Chinese and other characters is because of some deficiency in NBTSTAT.EXE, CMD.EXE or Windows 10 generally — despite having entered ‘CHCP 65001‘ and chosen a Unicode TrueType font in CMD.EXE — but the important point is that the statistics listed by the ‘nbtstat -r‘ command clearly show that only broadcasts are used for NetBIOS Name resolution, as promised. NetBIOS name resolution works fine in the home network and all the sharing-enabled computers in the home network can browse SMB shares on other sharing-enabled computers, whether they are running Windows, Linux, macOS, Android or iOS. I reiterate that this is for a typical home network.

Command to find Master Browsers
In Linux you can use the ‘nmblookup‘ command as follows to find out which machine in the home network is currently the Master Browser in each Workgroup:

user $ nmblookup -M -- -
192.168.1.254 __MSBROWSE__
192.168.1.90 __MSBROWSE__
192.168.56.1 __MSBROWSE__

You can see above that there are currently three Master Browsers in this home network. Let’s check the details for these three Master Browsers:

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.254
Looking up status of 192.168.1.254
        BTHUB5          <00> -         B <ACTIVE>
        BTHUB5          <03> -         B <ACTIVE>
        BTHUB5          <20> -         B <ACTIVE>
        ..__MSBROWSE__. <01> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        HOME            <1d> -         B <ACTIVE>
        HOME            <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        HOME            <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00

You can see above that the machine BTHUB5 (which is actually the home network’s router) is the Master Browser in the Workgroup named HOME (see earlier).

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.1.90
Looking up status of 192.168.1.90
        SMENKHKARE      <00> -         B <ACTIVE>
        SMENKHKARE      <03> -         B <ACTIVE>
        SMENKHKARE      <20> -         B <ACTIVE>
        ..__MSBROWSE__. <01> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <00> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1d> -         B <ACTIVE>
        GREENGABLES     <1e> - <GROUP> B <ACTIVE>

        MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00

You can see above that computer SMENKHKARE is currently the Master Browser in the Workgroup named GREENGABLES.

user $ nmblookup -A 192.168.56.1
Looking up status of 192.168.56.1
No reply from 192.168.56.1

You can see above that the network node 192.168.56.1 is inactive, which is not surprising considering that it is a node on a VirtualBox virtual subnet on the Windows 10 computer thutmoseiii (see earlier) and VirtualBox is not running at the moment on that computer.

On a Windows machine it is not quite so easy to find out which machines are currently Master Browsers. However, on the face of it the third-party utility lanscan.exe can do it (see How to Determine the Master Browser in a Windows Workgroup):

C:\WINDOWS\system32>lanscan

LANscanner v1.67 - ScottiesTech.Info

Scanning LAN...

Scanning workgroup: HOME...

Scanning workgroup: GREENGABLES...

BTHUB5            192.168.1.254    11-11-11-11-11-11  HOME         MASTER
THUTMOSEIII       192.168.56.1     22-22-22-22-22-22  GREENGABLES  MASTER
SMENKHKARE        192.168.1.90     aa-bb-cc-dd-ee-ff  GREENGABLES  MASTER
TUTANKHAMUN       192.168.1.79     33-33-33-33-33-33  GREENGABLES
AKHANATEN         192.168.1.70     55-55-55-55-55-55  GREENGABLES

Press any key to exit...

(MAC addresses anonymised by me.)

Notice above that lanscan.exe listed the VirtualBox virtual subnet node 192.168.56.1 in Windows 10 computer thutmoseiii (see earlier) but omitted to list the node 192.168.1.74 (also thutmoseiii) in the real network. Now, in this particular case thutmoseiii on 192.168.1.74 is not a Master Browser. Nevertheless, as lanscan.exe is supposed to list all nodes, its failure to list the node 192.168.1.74 is a shortcoming.

And what happens if thutmoseiii on node 192.168.1.74 becomes a Master Browser? In that case lanscan.exe still omits the node from the list and, in addition, wrongly shows tutankhamun as a Master Browser:

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -n

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

                NetBIOS Local Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    THUTMOSEIII    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    THUTMOSEIII    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1D>  UNIQUE      Registered
    ☺☻__MSBROWSE__☻<01>  GROUP       Registered

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

                NetBIOS Local Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    THUTMOSEIII    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    THUTMOSEIII    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1D>  UNIQUE      Registered
    ☺☻__MSBROWSE__☻<01>  GROUP       Registered

WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    No names in cache

C:\WINDOWS\system32>nbtstat -A 192.168.1.79

VirtualBox Host-Only Network 2:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.56.1] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Ethernet:
Node IpAddress: [192.168.1.74] Scope Id: []

           NetBIOS Remote Machine Name Table

       Name               Type         Status
    ---------------------------------------------
    TUTANKHAMUN    <00>  UNIQUE      Registered
    TUTANKHAMUN    <03>  UNIQUE      Registered
    TUTANKHAMUN    <20>  UNIQUE      Registered
    GREENGABLES    <00>  GROUP       Registered
    GREENGABLES    <1E>  GROUP       Registered

    MAC Address = 00-00-00-00-00-00


WiFi:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

Local Area Connection* 11:
Node IpAddress: [0.0.0.0] Scope Id: []

    Host not found.

C:\WINDOWS\system32>lanscan

LANscanner v1.67 - ScottiesTech.Info

Scanning LAN...

Scanning workgroup: HOME...

Scanning workgroup: GREENGABLES...

BTHUB5            192.168.1.254    11-11-11-11-11-11  HOME         MASTER
THUTMOSEIII       192.168.56.1     22-22-22-22-22-22  GREENGABLES  MASTER
TUTANKHAMUN       192.168.1.79     33-33-33-33-33-33  GREENGABLES  MASTER
SMENKHKARE        192.168.1.90     aa-bb-cc-dd-ee-ff  GREENGABLES
AKHANATEN         192.168.1.70     55-55-55-55-55-55  GREENGABLES

Press any key to exit...

(MAC addresses anonymised by me.)

Linux appears to have the edge on Windows in this respect, as the Samba command ‘nmblookup -M -- -‘ detects all the Master Browsers correctly in the above situation:

user $ nmblookup -M -- -
192.168.1.254 __MSBROWSE__
192.168.1.74 __MSBROWSE__
192.168.56.1 __MSBROWSE__

So it appears that, from a Windows computer, the only sure way to find all Master Browsers is to use the command ‘nbtstat -a <computer name>‘ to check each remote machine in the home network, plus the command ‘nbtstat -n‘ to check the Windows computer you are using.

Footnote
The ebuild of the current Gentoo Stable Branch package net-fs/samba-4.2.11 (and probably the ebuild of the Testing Branch package net-fs/samba-4.2.14 as well) is not entirely correct, as it pulls in unnecessary dependencies (see Gentoo Bug Report No. 579088 – net-fs/samba-4.x has many hard dependencies, make some optional). For example, Kerberos is not required at all if you are not using LDAP, AD, etc. and are just using NETBIOS Name Resolution by Broadcast in a Windows Workgroup (like most home users). However, the Gentoo samba ebuild forces the user to install Kerberos (either the MIT implementation app-crypt/mit-krb5 or the Heimdal implementation app-crypt/heimdal) even if you specify that Samba should be built without support for LDAP, AD, etc. This does not cause any harm, but it is unnecessary.

user $ eix -I samba
[I] net-fs/samba
     Available versions:  3.6.25^t 4.2.11 ~4.2.14 [M]~4.3.11 [M]~4.4.5 [M]~4.4.6 [M]~4.5.0 {acl addc addns ads (+)aio avahi caps (+)client cluster cups debug dmapi doc examples fam gnutls iprint ldap ldb +netapi pam quota +readline selinux +server +smbclient smbsharemodes swat syslog +system-mitkrb5 systemd test (+)winbind zeroconf ABI_MIPS="n32 n64 o32" ABI_PPC="32 64" ABI_S390="32 64" ABI_X86="32 64 x32" PYTHON_TARGETS="python2_7"}
     Installed versions:  4.2.11(19:40:03 16/09/16)(avahi client cups fam gnutls pam -acl -addc -addns -ads -aio -cluster -dmapi -iprint -ldap -quota -selinux -syslog -system-mitkrb5 -systemd -test -winbind ABI_MIPS="-n32 -n64 -o32" ABI_PPC="-32 -64" ABI_S390="-32 -64" ABI_X86="64 -32 -x32" PYTHON_TARGETS="python2_7")
     Homepage:            http://www.samba.org/
     Description:         Samba Suite Version 4

If you are a Gentoo Linux user, you can merge the package net-fs/samba with the same USE flags shown above (obviously change “-systemd” to “systemd” if you use systemd instead of OpenRC), and use the laptops’ smb.conf files shown in this post as templates, and you will be able to share files and printers using Samba and NetBIOS name resolution. Don’t forget to use pdbedit to define the Samba users, and don’t forget to stop and disable winbindd if it is already installed.

Further reading

• How NetBIOS name resolution really works
• Name Resolution and Browsing (See the section Browser Elections)
• How Computer Browser Service Works
• NetBIOS Over TCP/IP
• Nbtstat
• Windows Networking

ADDENDUM (October 30, 2016): You probably already use the Public folder in Windows. If not, you can find a brief explanation in the article Simple Questions: What is the Public Folder & How to Use it?. There are a number of default sub-folders in C:\Users\Public\ on a Windows machine. There are some differences depending on the version of Windows, but in Windows 10 (Anniversary Update) these sub-folders are named:

C:\Public\Libraries
C:\Public\Public Account Pictures
C:\Public\Public Desktop
C:\Public\Public Documents
C:\Public\Public Downloads
C:\Public\Public Music
C:\Public\Public Pictures
C:\Public\Public Videos

These predefined sub-folders are not ordinary folders, and I have noticed a surmountable minor limitation when accessing them from a Linux machine using Samba, as explained below.

If I enable Public Folder Sharing on a Windows machine (‘Turn on sharing so that anyone with network access can read and write files in the Public folders’) and configure the security permissions of the Public folder for Everyone, from another Windows machine in the Workgroup I can copy files to the first machine’s Public folder and default sub-folders. From a Linux machine in the Workgroup I can copy files to the Public folder on Windows machines in the Workgroup but I cannot copy files to the default sub-folders (the Dolphin file manager displays the error message ‘Access denied. Could not write to .‘). However, this is not a big deal because I can copy files into the Public folder itself and into manually created sub-folders in the Public folder.

A long overdue update to Google Earth for Linux

Google has finally released Version 7.1.7.2600 of Google Earth for Linux, fixing various crashes and the infamous empty Panoramio window. The last version of Google Earth for Linux that worked properly ‘out of the box’ in Gentoo Linux for me was 5.2.1.1588, and that was several years ago.

The current version of Google Earth in the Portage main tree is 7.1.4.1529. That version does not display Panoramio photos in Gentoo Linux (Stable Branch) on my Clevo W230SS laptop (NVIDIA Optimus), and Version 7.1.4.1529 crashes at launch more often than not. So I was keen to try the new version. Below are the steps I followed to install Version 7.1.7.2600 in the Portage local overlay on the laptop. If you don’t already have a local overlay, see the Gentoo Wiki article Overlay/Local overlay. Don’t forget to copy the files directory and its contents from /usr/portage/sci-geosciences/googleearth/ to /usr/local/portage/sci-geosciences/googleearth/ as well.

1. Download the file google-earth-stable_current_amd64.deb from the Google Earth Web site (Download the latest version of Google Earth for PC, Mac or Linux).

2. Edit the file /etc/portage/package.use/googleearth and add the line:

=sci-geosciences/googleearth-7.1.7.2600 -bundled-libs

3. Edit the file /etc/portage/package.unmask/googleearth and add the line:

=sci-geosciences/googleearth-7.1.7.2600

4. Edit the file /etc/portage/package.accept_keywords/googleearth and add the line:

=sci-geosciences/googleearth-7.1.7.2600 ~amd64

5. Copy the downloaded binary package to the distfiles directory and rename the package:

root # cp /home/fitzcarraldo/Downloads/google-earth-stable_current_amd64.deb /usr/portage/distfiles/GoogleEarthLinux-7.1.7.2600_amd64.deb

6. Create an ebuild for the new version and generate a manifest:

root # cd /usr/local/portage/sci-geosciences/googleearth/
root # cp /usr/portage/sci-geosciences/googleearth/googleearth-7.1.4.1529.ebuild googleearth-7.1.7.2600.ebuild
root # ebuild googleearth-7.1.7.2600.ebuild manifest

7. Install Google Earth 7.1.7.2600:

root # emerge =googleearth-7.1.7.2600

The package was installed without any trouble:

root # eix -I googleearth
[I] sci-geosciences/googleearth
     Available versions:  {M}(~)7.1.4.1529^m {M}(~)7.1.7.2600^m[1] {+bundled-libs}
     Installed versions:  7.1.7.2600^m[1](00:02:27 02/10/16)(-bundled-libs)
     Homepage:            https://earth.google.com/
     Description:         A 3D interface to the planet

[1] "local_overlay" /usr/local/portage

Google Earth for Linux 7.1.7.2600 launches quickly and without trouble on this laptop, and Panoramio photos are indeed now visible again (finally!). The only issue is one I also came across over a year ago after hacking an earlier version of Google Earth for Linux: If you click on a photo icon and the Panoramio window that opens displays several thumbnails, clicking on a thumbnail results in a white Panoramio window without any photo and thumbnails. Apparently this only happens in KDE. Anyway, the work-around is to right-click on the desired thumbnail and select ‘Open in New Window’.

Another look at beeps in Linux

Following my previous post I experimented further with the Linux Kernel configuration options for event beeps (sometimes called ‘system beeps’), and I now have a better understanding of how the Kernel options interact (on one of my laptops, at least).

The sound card in my Clevo W230SS laptop has a VIA VT1802S audio codec chip. I looked at the audio circuit schematic in the service manual; one of the digital input pins on the VT1802S is labelled ‘PCBEEP’, and one of its analogue output pins is labelled ‘PCBEEP’ and is connected to the laptop’s speaker circuit. So there is no PC Speaker in this laptop and it emulates the PC Speaker via the laptop’s sound card, as mentioned in my previous post.

Before I describe my latest results, there are a couple of influencing factors I forgot to mention in my previous post:

• In some computers the BIOS Menu has one or more options for enabling/disabling beeps. The BIOS menu of my Clevo laptop does not have an option to enable/disable all beeps from the (emulated) PC Speaker, but it does have a couple of options to enable/disable ‘Power On Boot Beep’ and ‘Battery Low Alarm Beep’ (I have disabled them both). Anyway, if you are still not getting beeps after trying everything else, be sure to check the BIOS menu just in case it has an option to enable/disable the PC Speaker.

• Make sure that bell-style is not set to ‘none‘ (you could set it to ‘audible‘ if you wanted to be sure):

  root # grep bell /etc/inputrc
# do not bell on tab-completion
#set bell-style none

The Kernel configuration was initially as shown below. With this configuration no beeps were emitted in a VT (Virtual Terminal) or in an X Windows terminal. As explained in my previous post, I therefore configured the XKB Event Daemon to play an audio file (bell.oga) whenever X Windows detects a BEL character (ASCII 007) or Backspace key (ASCII 008).

root # grep PCSP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
# CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR is not set
# CONFIG_SND_PCSP is not set
root # grep BEEP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=y
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1

Then I rebuilt the Kernel with CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR=M and CONFIG_SND_PCSP=M:

root # cd /usr/src/linux
root # mount /dev/sda1 /boot
root # make menuconfig
root # make && make modules_install
root # make install
root # grep PCSP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR=m
CONFIG_SND_PCSP=m
root # grep BEEP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=y
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1

Then I created the file /etc/modprobe.d/blacklist.conf in order to blacklist the modules pcspkr and snd-pcsp so that only I could load them after boot:

root # cat /etc/modprobe.d/blacklist.conf
blacklist pcspkr
blacklist snd-pcsp

Then I added the line ‘options snd-pcsp index=2‘ to the file /etc/modprobe.d/alsa.conf so that the virtual sound card pcsp would not become the default sound card:

root # tail /etc/modprobe.d/alsa.conf
alias /dev/midi snd-seq-oss

# Set this to the correct number of cards.
options snd cards_limit=1

# See https://bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu/+source/alsa-driver/+bug/1313904
options snd-hda-intel patch=,clevo-hda-patch

# See Kernel Help text for CONFIG_SND_PCSP
options snd-pcsp index=2

Then I rebooted and checked that neither module was loaded:

root # lsmod | grep pcsp
root # echo -e '\a'

root #

As neither module was loaded, the situation was the same as before: a) no beep in a VT; b) no beep in Konsole/Yakuake (I will ignore KDE terminal programs anyway because of KDE bug report no. 177861);* c) the same bell.oga beep in xterm due to my use of xkbevd; d) no changes in ALSA Mixer.

* Regarding Konsole and Yakuake, see my update of October 9, 2016 at the bottom of this post.

Then I loaded the module pcspkr:

root # modprobe pcspkr
root # lsmod | grep pcsp
pcspkr                  1875  0
root # echo -e '\a'

root #

There were no changes in ALSA Mixer. But now the BEL character and Backspace in a VT did result in a beep (I’ll call this a ‘pcbeep’ to distinguish it from the different-sounding beep produced using bell.oga). There was the usual bell.oga beep in xterm due to my use of xkbevd. If I stopped xkbevd, there was no pcbeep in X Windows from the shell commands shown in my previous post, although the following commands from any terminal in X Windows (even Konsole/Yakuake) did emit a pcbeep:

user $ sudo sh -c "echo -e '\a' > /dev/console"

user $ sudo sh -c "tput bel > /dev/console"

root # echo -e '\a' > /dev/console

root # tput bel > /dev/console

Then I unloaded the module pcspkr and loaded the module snd-pcsp:

root # modprobe -r pcspkr
root # modprobe snd-pcsp
root # lsmod | grep pcsp
snd_pcsp                7918  1
root # echo -e '\a'

root #

ALSA Mixer showed a new sound card named ‘pcsp‘ (Sound Card 2) with three channels: ‘Master’, ‘Beep’ and ‘BaseFRQ’. I could mute/unmute ‘Beep’ by pressing ‘M’ on the keyboard as usual, and I could toggle ‘BaseFRQ’ between two values:18643 and 37286. The BEL character and Backspace in a VT resulted in a pcbeep. There was the usual bell.oga beep in xterm due to my use of xkbevd. If I stopped xkbevd, there was no pcbeep in X Windows from the shell commands shown in my previous post, although the following commands from any terminal in X Windows (even Konsole/Yakuake) did emit a pcbeep:

user $ sudo sh -c "echo -e '\a' > /dev/console"

user $ sudo sh -c "tput bel > /dev/console"

root # echo -e '\a' > /dev/console

root # tput bel > /dev/console

Muting ‘Beep’ in ALSA Mixer did not mute the bell.oga beeps in X Windows, but it did mute the pcbeeps in the VTs.

Unlike the situation with the pcspkr module, occasionally there were brief low-volume crackles and pops from the laptop’s speakers.

So both drivers worked, but pcspkr performed better, although it could not be muted via ALSA Mixer. My recommendation to use pcspkr rather than snd-pcsp still stands.

Unlike pcspkr, I had to force the unloading of snd-pcsp:

root # modprobe -r snd-pcsp
modprobe: FATAL: Module snd_pcsp is in use.
root # rmmod -f snd_pcsp
root #

I then removed the Kernel’s ‘digital beep’ interface for the Intel HDA driver by rebuilding the Kernel with CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=N:

root # cd /usr/src/linux
root # mount /dev/sda1 /boot
root # make menuconfig
root # make && make modules_install
root # make install
root # grep PCSP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=y
CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR=m
CONFIG_SND_PCSP=m
root # grep BEEP /usr/src/linux/.config
# CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP is not set
root #

After I rebooted, the behaviour was exactly the same as for CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=Y and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1.

So, there you have it. I believe my previous post was essentially correct regarding the functional design of the Kernel options. If you have a computer without a PC Speaker but it emulates one via the computer’s sound card, you have to set either CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR or CONFIG_SND_PCSP to get a beep in a VT, not set just CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE. However, even when my laptop emits beeps in a VT from the (emulated) PC Speaker, no beeps from the (emulated) PC Speaker are emitted in X Windows unless the user is the root user and the output is redirected to /dev/console. So, if you want to emit beeps in X Windows it is still better in my opinion to use xkbevd to play an audio file of a beep, as described in my previous post.

Update (October 9, 2016): Regarding KDE’s terminal applications emitting beeps, I am currently using KDE Plasma 5.7.5 and have been able to configure Konsole and Yakuake to play an audio file of a beep (as opposed to emitting a pcbeep) as follows:

• In Konsole, click on ‘Settings’ > ‘Configure Notifications…’, select ‘Bell in Visible Session’ and ensure ‘Play a sound’ is ticked and a file is specified there (I specify /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga). If you wish, do the same for ‘Bell in Non-Visible Session’.
• For Yakuake, press F12 to display the Yakuake window, click on the ‘Open Menu’ icon, select ‘Configure Notifications…’, select ‘Bell in Visible Session’ and ensure ‘Play a sound’ is ticked and a file is specified there (I specify /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga). If you wish, do the same for ‘Bell in Non-Visible Session’.

To beep, or not to beep, that is the question

Introduction

If your computer running Linux has the necessary hardware and is configured appropriately, applications and shell scripts can trigger a beep to signal an event such as an invalid keyboard entry, shutdown initiation, and so on. To check the current situation with your computer, enter the command shown below. Try it first in a Linux VT (virtual terminal) and then in a terminal window in X Windows. Do you hear a beep in each case?

user $ echo -e '\a'

The above command outputs the BEL character (ASCII code 007).

An alternative to the above command is:

user $ echo -e '\007'

Another command that should produce a beep is:

user $ tput bel

The tput utility is part of the ncurses package.

If you install the package app-misc/beep you can also use the ‘beep’ command (enter the command ‘man beep‘ to see its options):

user $ beep

Although you can enter the above-mentioned commands on the command line, they are intended to be used in shell scripts to notify the user about something.

There are thousands of posts on the Web regarding beeps in Linux, the majority of them concerned with disabling beeps because many people find them annoying. Historically, such beeps were emitted by the so-called ‘PC speaker‘. Note that the PC Speaker is not the same as the speakers connected to the sound card in your computer; the term refers to a small internal loudspeaker (moving-coil or piezoelectric) wired directly to the motherboard and intended solely to emit beeps to notify the user about something. Many modern computers, especially laptops, do not have a PC Speaker and either emulate one via the sound card or do nothing at all.

The reason people sometimes use the terms ‘bell’ and ‘ring’ instead of ‘beep’ is because old teletypwriters and teleprinters actually had an electromechanical bell which would ring when a certain dedicated character was received. I use the terms ‘beep’ and ‘bell’ interchangeably, although I prefer to use the term ‘beep’ when talking about audible notifications by computers.

I was motivated to write this post after helping a Gentoo Linux user to get his laptop to produce beeps (see the Gentoo Linux Forums thread ‘i want to beep [solved]‘). Producing a beep in Linux turns out to be more complicated than you would expect, and I’m not sure I fully understand the functional design of the applicable configuration options in the Kernel, nor their relevance (if any) to the X Windows server’s bell. Now, on the face of it the functionality of the applicable Kernel configuration options appears straightforward, but that is not the case in practice. Anyway, let’s look at how I believe a beep can be achieved (and disabled) in Linux…

PC Speaker drivers

Four Kernel options relate directly to a PC Speaker:

CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM

If this is not set in the Kernel then CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM cannot be enabled.

CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM

Enable PC-Speaker support

This option allows to disable the internal PC-Speaker
support, saving some memory.

CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR

PC Speaker support

Say Y here if you want the standard PC Speaker to be used for
bells and whistles.

If unsure, say Y.

To compile this driver as a module, choose M here: the
module will be called pcspkr.

CONFIG_SND_PCSP

PC-Speaker support (READ HELP!)

If you don’t have a sound card in your computer, you can include a
driver for the PC speaker which allows it to act like a primitive
sound card.
This driver also replaces the pcspkr driver for beeps.

You can compile this as a module which will be called snd-pcsp.

WARNING: if you already have a soundcard, enabling this
driver may lead to a problem. Namely, it may get loaded
before the other sound driver of yours, making the
pc-speaker a default sound device. Which is likely not
what you want. To make this driver play nicely with other
sound driver, you can add this into your /etc/modprobe.conf:
options snd-pcsp index=2

You don’t need this driver if you only want your pc-speaker to beep.
You don’t need this driver if you have a tablet piezo beeper
in your PC instead of the real speaker.

Say N if you have a sound card.
Say M if you don’t.
Say Y only if you really know what you do.

If your computer does have a PC Speaker, you would use either CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR or CONFIG_SND_PCSP, but not both. When configuring the Kernel you can specify ‘M’ to build the driver as an external module, in which case you can decide in userspace whether or not to load it. Or you can specify ‘Y’ to build the driver into the Kernel (do not specify both as ‘Y’ simultaneously, though).

If your computer does have a PC Speaker, an advantage of using CONFIG_SND_PCSP instead of CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR is that the former adds a virtual sound card named ‘pcsp’ with a channel (without volume control) named ‘Beep’, and you should be able to mute it via ALSA Mixer.

If you have a computer that has a sound card but does not have a PC Speaker (a laptop’s internal speakers are connected to a sound card, not a PC Speaker), the above two drivers do not really apply. I have always disabled them both in the Kernel, as my laptop does not have a PC Speaker.  Update (September 29, 2016): This is not always the case: if a computer uses a sound card to emulate a PC Speaker (typically laptops do this), then you do need to use one of these two drivers if you want to be able to hear event beeps in a VT — see my latest post Another look at beeps in Linux.

However, apparently for some laptops ALSA Mixer shows a channel named ‘Beep’ (with volume control) for the Intel HDA (High Definition Audio) sound card if CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR is set to ‘Y’ or ‘M’. I believe such laptops were designed to use their sound card to emulate a PC Speaker. I do not know whether or not the ‘digital beep’ Kernel options (see further on) are set in such cases, but Kernel bug report no. 13651 would appear to indicate that the design intention is for them to be set.

So, already things are confusing.

Of course, if your computer does have a PC Speaker and you don’t want it to emit beeps, set both CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR and CONFIG_INPUT_PCSP to ‘N’ in the Kernel. If either already exists as an external module and you do not wish to rebuild the Kernel, make sure the modules pcspkr and snd-pcsp are not loaded (blacklist them, for example).

Digital Beep

Now, there are two other Kernel options relating to event beeps. These are not for driving a PC Speaker, they are to enable the ALSA Intel HDA driver to emit event beeps in lieu of a PC Speaker: the so-called ‘digital beep’. In other words, these two options are intended to provide an alternative to using a PC Speaker. The two options are:

CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP

Support digital beep via input layer

Say Y here to build a digital beep interface for HD-audio
driver. This interface is used to generate digital beeps.

CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE

Digital beep registration mode (0=off, 1=on)

Set 0 to disable the digital beep interface for HD-audio by default.
Set 1 to always enable the digital beep interface for HD-audio by
default.

Note that the mode ‘2’ is no longer an option in newer Kernels.

So, if your installation uses the Intel HDA driver and you want your computer’s sound card to be able to emit beeps instead of a PC Speaker (which your computer may or may not have), set these two accordingly in the Kernel configuration:

user $ grep CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP /usr/src/linux/.config
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=y
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1

The functional design of these Kernel options is not clear, but Kernel bug report no. 13651 appears to indicate that the design intention is for CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE to be used in addition to either CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR or CONFIG_SND_PCSP, not instead of them. In other words, if your computer has a PC Speaker but you want beeps to be routed via its Intel HDA sound card instead then I believe you are expected to use either of the following two sets of options:

Option 1
CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=Y
CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=Y
CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR=Y (or =M)
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=Y
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1

Option 2
CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=Y
CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM=Y
CONFIG_SND_PCSP=Y (or =M)
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=Y
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=1

On the other hand, if your computer has a PC Speaker and your installation uses the Intel HDA driver for a sound card but you do want your computer to emit beeps from the PC Speaker, I think you would set the two options as follows in the Kernel configuration:

CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=N
CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=0

If you read the comment by ALSA developer Takashi Iwai quoted in Kernel bug report no. 13651 you’ll see that the functionality is not at all straightforward. For example, on some computers, especially laptops (which normally do not have a PC Speaker), the beep may be emitted via the sound card irrespective of whether or not you set CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP.

X Windows

A beep can be emitted in X Windows, and I have seen this beep referred to as the ‘X Windows server bell’ or the ‘X Windows keyboard bell’.

Given that X Windows can emit a beep via the sound card when neither the pcspkr module nor the snd-pcsp module is loaded and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP=N and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE=0, I assume X Windows emits beeps directly to the default sound card irrespective of the settings of those Kernel options. I could be wrong, but I have not found any explanation on the Web about the underlying mechanism; the X.Org Web site FAQ ‘How can I configure the Xserver bell (xkbbell) to use the sound subsystem of my computer? (ALSA, OSS, etc.)‘ simply states:

Answer (hopefully) goes here.. 🙂

*shrug*.

Below is a summary of the commands to disable, enable and configure the beep in X Windows.

To disable beeps in X Windows:

user $ xset b off

To enable beeps in X Windows:

user $ xset b on

To change the volume, pitch and duration of the beeps:

user $ xset b <volume> <pitch> <duration>

For example, to set the beep volume to 25% without changing the pitch and duration:

user $ xset b 25

To return to the default settings:

user $ xset b

To view the current settings:

user $ xset q | grep bell

which displays the following (default) values in my case:

bell percent:  50        bell pitch:    400        bell duration:    100

To set the beep automatically each time X Windows starts, add the following line before the last one in the ~/.xinitrc file if you don’t use a Desktop Manager, otherwise use the Desktop Environment’s system settings GUI to run it at login:

xset b 20 400 20 &

PulseAudio

To confuse matters further, note that PulseAudio intercepts X11 beeps (see: PulseAudio Documentation – User Documentation – Modules – X Window system – module-x11-bell). Therefore, if your installation uses PulseAudio and you want the ability to emit event beeps in X Windows, you also need to configure PulseAudio so it does not ignore the beeps. This can either be done from the command line:

user $ pactl upload-sample /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga x11-bell
user $ pactl load-module module-x11-bell sample=x11-bell display=$DISPLAY

or you can edit /etc/pulse/default.pa and make sure the following lines are included in that file (they may already exist but are commented out):

load-sample-lazy x11-bell /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga
load-module module-x11-bell sample=x11-bell

On the other hand, if PulseAudio is installed and you want it to ignore event beeps in X Windows, delete or comment out the above-mentioned two lines in /etc/pulse/default.pa. You can achieve the same effect from the command line:

user $ pactl unload-module module-x11-bell

Configuring userspace to emit a ‘digital beep’

Installation of PulseAudio will have created the directory /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/ and sub-directories containing various Ogg Vorbis audio files, including the ‘digital beep’ file bell.oga. If your installation does not have PulseAudio installed, you can obtain the same file /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga by installing the package x11-themes/sound-theme-freedesktop instead. You can configure your installation to use this file to emit a ‘digital beep’ in X Windows (but not in a VT) by using the XKB (X Windows keyboard extension) event daemon as explained in a post on the superuser Web site. That post relates to Ubuntu, but the basic principle applies whatever the Linux distribution.

Now, in my case I am using KDE Plasma 5 in Gentoo Linux, and I cannot hear any beep/bell in Konsole and Yakuake. I came across KDE bug report no. 177861 that has been outstanding since 2008, which indicated that KDE’s terminal applications will not emit beeps even if you do have a PC Speaker and your Kernel has been correctly configured to use it, or even if you have configured your installation to use a ‘digital beep’. You may have better luck with a different Desktop Environment but in KDE you will have to use a non-KDE X Windows terminal application if you want to hear beeps produced by shell scripts.

Update (October 9, 2016): Regarding KDE’s terminal applications emitting beeps, I am currently using KDE Plasma 5.7.5 and have been able to configure Konsole and Yakuake to emit a ‘digital beep’ as follows:

• In Konsole, click on ‘Settings’ > ‘Configure Notifications…’, select ‘Bell in Visible Session’ and ensure ‘Play a sound’ is ticked and a file is specified there (I specify /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga). If you wish, do the same for ‘Bell in Non-Visible Session’.
• For Yakuake, press F12 to display the Yakuake window, click on the ‘Open Menu’ icon, select ‘Configure Notifications…’, select ‘Bell in Visible Session’ and ensure ‘Play a sound’ is ticked and a file is specified there (I specify /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga). If you wish, do the same for ‘Bell in Non-Visible Session’.

Below I explain how I implemented a ‘digital beep’ in KDE Plasma 5.

First I installed the XKB event daemon:

root # emerge xkbevd

The package vorbis-tools was already installed, otherwise I would have installed that too in order to install an audio player for Ogg Vorbis audio files:

root # emerge vorbis-tools

PulseAudio was also already installed, and hence an appropriate audio file for a beep already existed. Had I not previously installed PulseAudio I would have installed the following package to get an appropriate Ogg Vorbis audio file:

root # emerge sound-theme-freedesktop

I created the file /home/fitzcarraldo/.config/autostart/xkbevd.desktop containing the following:

[Desktop Entry]
Comment[en_GB]=Software terminal bell
Comment=Software terminal bell
Exec=xkbevd -bg
GenericName[en_GB]=XKB Event Daemon
GenericName=XKB Event Daemon
Icon=system-run
MimeType=
Name[en_GB]=XKB Event Daemon
Name=XKB Event Daemon
Path=
StartupNotify=true
Terminal=false
TerminalOptions=
Type=Application
X-DBUS-ServiceName=
X-DBUS-StartupType=none
X-KDE-SubstituteUID=false
X-KDE-Username=fitzcarraldo	

and I changed its permissions:

user $ chmod 755 /home/fitzcarraldo/.config/autostart/xkbevd.desktop

I created the file /home/fitzcarraldo/.xkb/xkbevd.cf containing the following:

soundDirectory="/usr/share/sounds/"
soundCmd="ogg123 -q"

Bell() "freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga"

If the file /usr/share/sounds/freedesktop/stereo/bell.oga does not exist in your installation then you can copy any suitable audio file of your choice into the directory /usr/share/sounds/ or use one of the existing audio files in that directory, and specify its filename in xkbevd.cf. For example:

soundDirectory="/usr/share/sounds/"
soundCmd="aplay -q"

Bell() "beep.wav"

Notice that the choice of audio player is up to you. In the first example of xkbevd.cf I specified the ogg123 player, whereas in the second example I specified the aplay player.

The aforementioned bug in KDE Konsole and Yakuake prevented me from testing the use of the XKB event daemon, so I installed a non-KDE X Windows terminal application to see if the ‘digital beep’ would work in that:

root # emerge xterm

The command echo -e '\a' generates a beep in xterm. So the ‘digital beep’ approach does work, albeit use of the XKB event daemon means you are limited to using it in X Windows. To reiterate, as the XKB event daemon is for X Windows, no ‘digital beep’ is generated if you enter a beep command outside of X Windows (e.g. in a VT).

By the way, I’m currently using Gentoo Stable Branch and hence Version 5.6.5 of KDE Plasma, and there is another KDE bug to complicate matters further: ‘System Settings’ > ‘Autostart’ > ‘Add Program…’ does not save all the entries I make via the GUI to the .desktop file, and does not set the file permissions correctly either. I don’t know if that is an upstream bug or a bug in the Gentoo implementation of Plasma 5.6.5. Anyway, that is why I manually created xkbevd.desktop and manually set the permissions, rather than using System Settings.

Instead of launching the XKB event daemon by using a .desktop file in ~/.config/autostart/, if you don’t use a Desktop Manager you could launch it by adding the command in the file ~/.xinitrc.

Summary

All the following factors govern whether or not your computer will issue a beep for the BEL character:

• the specific hardware and firmware in your computer;
• CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM;
• CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM;
• CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR;
• CONFIG_SND_PCSP;
• CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP;
• CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE;
• X Windows settings;
• PulseAudio configuration (if installed);
• a bug in KDE’s terminal applications (if installed).

A. If you are hearing event beeps but don’t want them:

• Preferably, set CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM and CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM both to ‘N’.
• Either set both CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR and CONFIG_SND_PCSP to ‘N’ in your Kernel, or, if either driver exists as a module (pcspkr and snd-pcsp, respectively), blacklist it.
• Make sure CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP is set to ‘N’.
• Make sure the X Windows bell is turned off.
• If you also have PulseAudio installed, make sure the PulseAudio module module-x11-bell is not loaded (also check /etc/pulse/default.pa to see if it has been enabled by default).

B. If you are not hearing event beeps but you do want to hear them:

1. If you are sure your computer has a PC Speaker:

• Make sure CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM and CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM are set to ‘Y’.
• Either set CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR to ‘M’ and CONFIG_SND_PCSP to ‘N’ in your Kernel, or, if the module snd-pcsp already exists, blacklist it.
• Make sure the module pcspkr exists and is not blacklisted.
• Make sure the module pcspkr is loaded after the module snd-hda-intel.
• Make sure CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP is set to ‘N’.
• Make sure the X Windows bell is turned on and the volume is turned up.
• If you have PulseAudio installed, make sure the PulseAudio module module-x11-bell is loaded (check /etc/pulse/default.pa to ensure it includes the applicable lines, or issue the two commands listed earlier).
• If you use KDE, use a non-KDE terminal application until KDE bug report no. 177861 is fixed.
• If, after doing all the above, you still do not hear a beep in X Windows, follow the procedure in the section above titled Configuring userspace to emit a ‘digital beep’.

Above I have recommended using pcspkr. However, an advantage of using snd-pcsp instead is that it adds a virtual sound card with a channel named ‘Beep’ and you should be able to mute that channel via ALSA Mixer as you wish. Therefore, if you do opt to use the module snd-pcsp instead of pcspkr then make sure you specify the module option (or Kernel Quirk if you built the driver into the Kernel) described in the Kernel Help text quoted earlier, so that pcsp does not become the default sound card instead of the Intel HDA sound card.

2. If your computer does not have a PC Speaker:

• Preferably, set CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM and CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM both to ‘N’. *
• If you leave CONFIG_HAVE_PCSPKR_PLATFORM and CONFIG_PCSPKR_PLATFORM both set to ‘Y’, either set CONFIG_INPUT_PCSPKR and CONFIG_SND_PCSP both to ‘N’, or, if either module already exists, blacklist it. *
• Make sure CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP is set to ‘Y’ and CONFIG_SND_HDA_INPUT_BEEP_MODE is set to ‘1’ (I’m not sure this step is required for all computers).
• Make sure the X Windows bell is turned on and its volume is turned up.
• If you have PulseAudio installed, make sure the PulseAudio module module-x11-bell is loaded.
• Use the XKB Event Daemon method to play an audio file (‘digital beep’) when the BEL character is detected in X Windows.
• If you use KDE, use a non-KDE terminal application until KDE bug report no. 177861 is fixed.
  Update (October 9, 2016): Regarding KDE’s terminal applications emitting beeps, I am currently using KDE Plasma 5.7.5 and have been able to configure Konsole and Yakuake to emit a ‘digital beep’ — see my update in the section titled Configuring userspace to emit a ‘digital beep’.
  
  * If your computer’s hardware and firmware have been designed to emulate a PC Speaker via a sound card, you may find that you can use the pcspkr (or snd-pcsp) driver to generate beeps in a VT. As the saying goes, your mileage may vary.

  And Finally

  If you know precisely how all these Kernel options are supposed to interact, do comment. Or if you know the relationship, if any, between the X Windows beep (a.k.a. ‘bell’) and these Kernel options, please also comment.

  Update (September 29, 2016): See my latest post Another look at beeps in Linux for the results of some experiments with these Kernel options on my laptop, giving more insight into how to configure them and how they work.